Basic research project: Electric scooters in urban environments: a study of safety, infrastructure, and mobility dynamics

Research Project Summary

In the urban context in particular, various micromobility modes have great potential to address traffic congestion and externalities, while also contributing to mitigating mobility poverty. Electric scooters represent an important and rapidly evolving technology within this field, gaining increasing popularity in urban areas as a means of both private and shared mobility.

The integration of e-scooters into urban mobility systems offers one of the possible solutions for balancing sustainable mobility with growing mobility needs. However, urban mobility, especially in large and developed cities, is constrained by road infrastructure shaped by the transport and mobility demands of past decades or even centuries. As there is currently no infrastructure explicitly designed for e-scooters, and due to the rapid growth in their use, concerns have emerged regarding their safe integration into urban transport systems, particularly in light of potential conflicts with other road users. Furthermore, our understanding of how infrastructural elements and the attitudes of other users influence e-scooter safety remains limited.

Problems arising from the use of e-scooters in traditional urban environments, where neither infrastructure nor users are prepared for this new mobility option, have only begun to receive scholarly attention in the past two years. The key research issues identified in the literature include infrastructure and interactions with other users, policies on e-scooter use and how to address negative public perceptions, reduction of risky behaviour and conflicts, as well as potential positive and negative health impacts. The literature review confirms that integrating e-scooters into traditional urban mobility systems presents many challenges. These issues are becoming increasingly important, as e-scooters are seen as a potentially beneficial technology for promoting more sustainable urban transport. However, to encourage their use and transform them into a widely accepted mode of transport—and because their emergence and use in practice are already evident and at times problematic—a thorough analysis of all aspects of e-scooter use is urgently needed. This will allow for a shift away from unregulated or under-regulated practices and support evidence-based integration into urban mobility systems through well-considered processes.

Thanks to its multidisciplinary research team, this project addresses e-scooter use from various perspectives to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon, its implications, and possible solutions for ensuring the safe and sustainable use of e-scooters while supporting the transition toward a greener urban mobility system.

The project investigates e-scooter use in a way that allows for a multi-faceted analysis of current challenges related to their presence in the urban environment, such as their use within traditional infrastructural contexts, their interaction with other road users, and their psychological and physical dimensions. Our main objective is to determine how e-scooters and their users are currently integrated into the urban mobility sphere, how this affects their safety and the safety of other users, and how the growing presence of e-scooters in cities influences traffic safety overall. Based on a comprehensive analysis, we will develop guidelines for their safe and sustainable integration to harness their potential benefits for personal urban mobility fully. The project is interdisciplinary, with infrastructure, behaviour, psychology, safety, and logistical aspects examined and addressed using various quantitative and qualitative research methods.

The main project research questions are as follows:

RQ1: Does the current legislation and regulation of the EU, Slovenia and Croatia suitably regulate the e-scooter market, their use, and conditions for riders in light of safety and usability of e-scooters in urban areas?

RQ2: What infrastructural issues do e-scooter users face in a typical urban environment?

RQ3: Do e-scooters need dedicated infrastructure? Should they use bicycle lanes or pedestrian lanes?

RQ4: What is the public’s attitude towards e-scooters? How can it be influenced to increase (safe) e-scooter use?

RQ5: What are the main safety issues for e-scooter users and for other infrastructure users in relation to e-scooter users?

RQ6: What messages should authorities convey to e-scooter users to increase their compliance with traffic rules and willingness to apply safe behaviour to protect them and others?

RQ7: What is the best trade-off between regulating e-scooters to ensure safety while not overregulating them to a point of making them unattractive and consequently pushing potential users towards less sustainable means of transport?

RQ8: Should e-scooter users have dedicated traffic signage?

RQ9: Are e-scooters a good solution for urban area use if authorities wish to reduce pollution, or are they too disruptive and would require too many interventions to be used in a safe and extensive manner?

The main objectives of the project are:

O1. Preparation of a policy proposal document for integrating e-scooters into current regulation.

O2. Determination of riding styles and responses of e-scooter riders in everyday riding and in critical

situations.

O3. Preparation and validation of a questionnaire for assessing e-scooter riders’ behaviour and safety.

O4. Determination of physical interactions and psychological attitudes of other mobility users towards

e-scooters.

O5. Identification of barriers for incorporation of e-scooters into urban mobility and preparation of

guidelines for increasing the attractiveness and safe use of e-scooters in urban environments.

O6. Trade-off analysis of the advantages of e-scooter use towards the need for urban redesign in case of their widespread use

Project phases and their implementation

WP1: Status quo analysis of legislation, e-scooter use, and adaptations to their emergence and use from the authorities

E-scooters are a relatively new phenomenon on the market, which means that existing legislation was not initially designed to accommodate their integration into mobility systems. There are significant differences between countries regarding how e-scooters are treated and categorized. Key questions include: on which types of surfaces are they allowed to ride, what speed limits apply, whether there are power or equipment restrictions, etc. There is no consensus on these boundaries for the safe and sustainable integration of e-scooters into transport systems. Therefore, an analysis of the current state must explore diverse approaches and regulatory responses to the emergence of e-scooters.

A1.1: Legislation and regulation analysis: A comparative analysis of legislation across EU countries will be conducted to identify differences in how e-scooters are defined, the existing usage and sales restrictions, and applicable technical requirements.

A1.2: Analysis of the e-scooter market in the EU: The types of e-scooters available on the EU market will be examined in terms of their technical specifications and compared against existing legal requirements. This activity will be repeated toward the end of the project to evaluate technological advancements and alignment with safety standards.

A1.3: Statistical analysis of e-scooter incidents and accidents: Available data on accidents involving e-scooters in Slovenia and Croatia will be analysed to determine the extent and nature of safety-related challenges associated with e-scooter use.

WP2: Determining attitudes towards e-scooter use and reasoning for their use, and analysis of e-scooter user behaviour

This work package aims to comprehensively examine the behaviour, habits, perceptions, and attitudes of e-scooter users through an interdisciplinary approach. The focus is on the connection between user behaviour, personality traits, and safety in e-scooter use.

A2.1: Survey of e-scooter users: An online survey will be conducted in Slovenia and Croatia to capture users’ mobility needs, reasons for choosing e-scooters, self-assessed riding styles, perceived risks, hazardous practices (e.g. riding in pairs, distractions), and self-protective behaviours.

A2.2: Observational study of e-scooter rider behaviour: User behaviour will be observed in real traffic situations at selected locations in Slovenia and Croatia using video recordings and artificial intelligence analysis. Observations will be carried out during different seasons.

A2.3: E-scooter simulator experiments: Based on the findings from A2.1 and A2.2, scenarios will be developed to test user responses in dangerous situations (e.g. speed, distractions, poor conditions). Experiments will be conducted using a state-of-the-art simulator, enabling safe and realistic assessment of behaviour based on user experience and demographic characteristics.

A2.4: Investigation into visual attention of e-scooter riders in an urban environment: Eye-tracking glasses (Tobii PRO) will be used to analyse where users direct their attention during e-scooter rides, how they perceive their surroundings, infrastructure, and other road users. Data will be collected in real-world settings under appropriate weather conditions.

A2.5: Preparation of a questionnaire for assessing the safety and behaviour of e-scooter users: Based on previous activities, a self-assessment questionnaire will be developed and validated to evaluate the behaviour of e-scooter users in Slovenia and Croatia.

WP3: Examination of e-scooters as a part of the urban mobility mix – relation with other users

The purpose of this work package is to examine safety-related aspects associated with e-scooter use in mixed urban settings. Based on analyses of rider and pedestrian behaviour in real-world conditions and through simulation experiments, interactions between e-scooter users and other traffic participants will be identified. In addition, hazardous situations will be analysed in connection with the findings of other work packages to determine patterns of risky behaviour. The main objective is to understand how e-scooters influence the behaviour of other road users—and vice versa—and how the urban environment affects their safety.

A3.1: Survey of attitudes towards e-scooters and their use: A survey among non-users of e-scooters will explore attitudes towards e-scooter users, perceptions of risk, and views on e-scooter integration into the traffic system. The aim is to understand barriers to use and to develop measures encouraging e-scooter adoption as a form of sustainable mobility.

A3.2: Analysis of infrastructural issues: An in-depth analysis will be carried out to identify the most common infrastructural challenges (e.g. sidewalks, bike lanes, charging stations) perceived as hazardous by users. Based on the findings, recommendations for infrastructure improvements will be proposed to enhance safety for all traffic participants.

A3.3: Personal car driving simulation to analyse how drivers interact with e-scooter: A simulation-based experiment will expose car drivers to various interaction scenarios with e-scooters in urban traffic settings. The aim is to analyse how drivers perceive and respond to the presence of e-scooters in different traffic situations.

A3.4: Pedestrian interactions with e-scooters: An observational experiment in urban areas will be conducted using eye-tracking glasses to analyse pedestrian responses to e-scooters in different scenarios (e.g. overtaking, head-on passing). Visual responses, physiological parameters (e.g. heart rate, skin conductance), and a follow-up survey will be used to assess perceived safety.

A3.5: Observation of real-life e-scooter use in non-manipulated environments: Using AI-based software (e.g. Data from Sky), data on the density, direction, and speed of e-scooters as well as their interactions with other road users will be analysed. The analysis will identify areas with higher e-scooter usage and locations prone to conflict. This activity will span one year to allow for seasonal and weather-based comparisons.

WP4: Finding solutions for the integration of e-scooters into the urban context

The results from WP1, WP2 and WP3 will be consolidated and analysed. Concrete proposals for legislative and infrastructural solutions will also be prepared.

A4.1: Analysis of suitability of current legislation: An evaluation of the adequacy of existing legislation and regulations will be conducted based on findings regarding the actual use and interactions of e-scooters in urban areas, with potential proposals for necessary amendments, especially focusing on ensuring safety and reducing negative impacts of e-scooter use on other participants in the urban mobility system.

A4.2: E-scooter infrastructure recommendations: Based on the findings, recommendations will be prepared for adapting existing infrastructure to accommodate e-scooter use and for considering this mode of mobility in the development of new infrastructure. The recommendations will take into account the four dimensions of sustainability: social, environmental, economic, and institutional.

A4.3: Readiness for adoption of e-scooters: Recommendations will be developed to increase the readiness of all stakeholders for integrating e-scooters into urban areas, considering identified barriers to use and the personality traits of current and potential users. Measures will be defined to ensure that the introduction of e-scooters does not degrade the pedestrian experience. The goal of these recommendations is to prepare the existing system for e-scooters so that they become a permanent asset to society, being integrated into the network in the safest possible way for all traffic participants.

WP5: Project management, data management and dissemination

This work package covers the management of project activities, communication among partners, dissemination of results, and open access to scientific and practical content. It will be carried out throughout the entire duration of the project.

A5.1: Setting up project management responsibilities and a steering committee:
At the project start, a project steering committee will be established with representatives from all three organizations, responsible for coordinating and distributing responsibilities among researchers. Each activity will have an assigned lead researcher.

A5.2: Setting up a project webpage and online presence: A project website will be created in accordance with ARIS and HRZZ guidelines, with regular content updates. Presence on social media platforms will also be ensured.

A5.3: Periodic and final reporting: All reports will be prepared following ARIS and HRZZ instructions and submitted within prescribed deadlines.

A5.4: Kick-off, interim and final meetings in person, monthly online meetings: Four in-person meetings are planned (kick-off, two interim, and final), alongside monthly online meetings where researchers will present progress, challenges, and plans for upcoming work.

A5.5: Scientific publication/dissemination activities: Open-access scientific publications, a final monograph, and publication of research data in open repositories (e.g., Zenodo, DRYAD, Harvard Dataverse) are planned. The goal is to contribute to the scientific knowledge base on e-scooters as part of urban mobility.

A5.6: Dissemination for the general public and relevant authorities: Results will be regularly presented to the public and relevant authorities, including publications on the project website, video materials, guidelines for planners, two research workshops, and final roundtable discussions held in Slovenia and Croatia.

Faculty of Logistics, University of Maribor (FL UM)

No.	Research ID	Name and surname	Role
1.	36112 ORCID: 0000-0003-0493-900X	Tina Cvahte Ojsteršek, PhD	Project Leader
2.	57141 ORCID: 0009-0001-6014-1775	Martin Fale	Researcher
3.	38813 ORCID: 0009-0000-7929-4598	Mateja Forte, PhD	Researcher
4.	29263 ORCID: 0009-0000-7601-0449	Uroš Kramar, PhD	Researcher
5.	29196 ORCID: 0000-0001-7656-5444	Tomaž Kramberger, PhD	Researcher
6.	53808 ORCID: 0000-0001-5212-2112	Lazar Pavić, PhD	Researcher
7.	59787 ORCID: 0009-0006-5510-8715	Pija Soršak	Researcher
8.	28410 ORCID: 0000-0002-2891-3149	Marjan Sternad, PhD	Researcher
9.	52790 ORCID: 0000-0002-5369-3520	Simona Šinko, PhD	Researcher
10.	22432 ORCID: 0000-0002-1886-0688	Darja Topolšek, PhD	Researcher

Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, University of Maribor (FVV UM)

No.	Research ID	Name and surname	Role
1.	22499 ORCID: 0000-0001-5410-9907	Igor Areh, PhD	Researcher

Faculty of Transport and Traffic Scienses, University of Zagreb

No.	Research ID	Name and surname	Role
1.	ORCID: 0000-0003-2476-5940	Dario Babić, PhD	Researcher
2.	ORCID: 0000-0003-4381-1674	Darko Babić, PhD	Researcher
3.	ORCID: 0000-0001-9483-1910	Mario Fiolić, PhD	Researcher

doc. dr. Cvahte Ojsteršek Tina

Laboratory for Sustainable Mobility and Transport/strong>
Research Institute of the Faculty of Logistics
Faculty of Logistics
University of Maribor
Mariborska c. 7
3000 Celje
Slovenija

Phone: 00386 3 428 53 21
E-mail: tina.cvahte@um.si